1. Overview of Religion in Ancient Rome:
– The priesthoods were held by elite classes.
– No separation of church and state in ancient Rome.
– Julius Caesar was pontifex maximus before consul.
– Roman triumph was a religious procession.
– New temples built after military successes.
– Roman religio was a vital aspect of everyday life.
– Governed by the Roman state and religious laws.
– Religious behavior focused on action, not contemplation.
– Proper religio brought social harmony and prosperity.
– Neglecting religious duties was seen as a form of atheism.
2. Incorporation of Deities in Roman Religion:
– Rome absorbed deities and cults of other peoples.
– Built temples to local deities within Roman religion.
– Worship of local and Roman deities side by side.
– International deities like Cybele, Isis, and Mithras were cultivated.
– Imported mystery religions attracted Romans.
– Rome honored twelve principal deities.
– Roman theology acknowledged immortal gods ruling all realms.
– Roman deities often had Greek origins and were reinterpreted.
– Rome had a semi-divine ancestry in mythology.
– Founding myths include Romulus and Remus suckling the she-wolf.
3. Conflict and Adaptation with Monotheistic Religions:
– Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy.
– Religious disputes led to conflicts like the First Jewish–Roman War.
– Augustus justified one-man rule with religious revivalism.
– Imperial cult promoted cultural identity and loyalty.
– Christianity was seen as atheism and brought an end to Roman polytheism.
4. Roman Religious Practices and Rituals:
– Each home had a household shrine.
– Neighborhood shrines and sacred places were common.
– Roman calendar structured around religious observances.
– Women, slaves, and children participated in religious activities.
– State-supported Vestal priesthood tended Rome’s sacred hearth.
– All sacrifices and offerings required accompanying prayers for efficacy.
– Accurate naming and cult epithets were essential for invoking desired powers.
– Public prayers were offered loudly by priests on behalf of the community.
– Oaths and vows were sworn to deities for various purposes.
– Offerings included food, wine, honey-cakes, and animal sacrifices.
5. Roman Priesthood and State Rituals:
– State cult rituals were performed in public view.
– Priests represented the Roman state and people.
– Flamines were priests dedicated to specific deities.
– Rex sacrorum supervised regal and state rites.
– Public priests were appointed by collegia.
– Priesthood was a costly honor with no stipend.
– Priests had lifetime influence and immunity.
– Limited number and kind of religious offices per individual.
– Prominent priests were usually retired military or political figures.
– Imperial cult priesthood offered citizenship and public prominence.
Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule.
The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious, and attributed their success as a world power to their collective piety (pietas) in maintaining good relations with the gods. Their polytheistic religion is known for having honored many deities.
The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became fundamental, such as the cultus of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art, as the Etruscans had. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury, used by the state to seek the will of the gods. According to legends, most of Rome's religious institutions could be traced to its founders, particularly Numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome, who negotiated directly with the gods. This archaic religion was the foundation of the mos maiorum, "the way of the ancestors" or simply "tradition", viewed as central to Roman identity.
Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give". Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, rite, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order. As the Roman Empire expanded, migrants to the capital brought their local cults, many of which became popular among Italians. Christianity was eventually the most successful of these beliefs, and in 380 became the official state religion.
For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestals, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination.
