History of science and technology on the Indian subcontinent

Prehistory:
– Sites similar to Mehrgarh appeared by 5500 BCE
– Trading relations with Central Asia and the Near East were maintained
– Irrigation developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE
– Prosperity of the Indus civilization grew due to irrigation innovations
– Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed, including artificial reservoirs and canal irrigation

Standardization and Measurement:
– System of standardization using weights and measures was developed in the Indus Valley
– Technical standardization enabled effective use of gauging devices
– Calibration and multiple subdivisions were found in measuring devices
– One of the earliest known docks was at Lothal (2400 BCE)
– The Harappans likely had knowledge of tides and exemplary maritime engineering

Manufacturing and Technology:
– Evidence of an early furnace found at Balakot
– Ovens and pot-shaped hearths excavated at Kalibangan
– Kilns with fire and kiln chambers found at the Kalibangan site
– Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali indicates hospitals for people and animals
– Origins of Indian cartography traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization

Constructional Plans and Cartography:
– Large scale constructional plans, cosmological drawings, and cartographic material known since the Vedic period
– Climatic conditions led to the destruction of most evidence
– Excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods provide evidence
– Indian cartography originated in the Indus Valley Civilization
– South Asia had knowledge of constructional plans and cartography since ancient times

Innovations in Agriculture:
– Cotton cultivation in the region by the 5th–4th millennia BCE
– Sugarcane likely originated in India
– Indus Valley inhabitants developed advanced irrigation systems
– Planned settlements with drainage and sewerage were established
– Artificial reservoirs and canal irrigation systems were created